Избранные публикации

1. Pletneva N.V., Pletnev V.Z., Lukyanov K.A., Gurskaya N.G., Goryacheva E.A., Martynov V.I., Wlodawer A., Dauter Z., Pletnev S. (2010). Structural evidence for a dehydrated intermediate in green fluorescent protein chromophore biosynthesis. J. Biol. Chem. 285 (21), 15978–84 [+]

   The acGFPL is the first-identified member of a novel, colorless and non-fluorescent group of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-like proteins. Its mutant aceGFP, with Gly replacing the invariant catalytic Glu-222, demonstrates a relatively fast maturation rate and bright green fluorescence (lambda(ex) = 480 nm, lambda(em) = 505 nm). The reverse G222E single mutation in aceGFP results in the immature, colorless variant aceGFP-G222E, which undergoes irreversible photoconversion to a green fluorescent state under UV light exposure. Here we present a high resolution crystallographic study of aceGFP and aceGFP-G222E in the immature and UV-photoconverted states. A unique and striking feature of the colorless aceGFP-G222E structure is the chromophore in the trapped intermediate state, where cyclization of the protein backbone has occurred, but Tyr-66 still stays in the native, non-oxidized form, with C(alpha) and C(beta) atoms in the sp(3) hybridization. This experimentally observed immature aceGFP-G222E structure, characterized by the non-coplanar arrangement of the imidazolone and phenolic rings, has been attributed to one of the intermediate states in the GFP chromophore biosynthesis. The UV irradiation (lambda = 250-300 nm) of aceGFP-G222E drives the chromophore maturation further to a green fluorescent state, characterized by the conventional coplanar bicyclic structure with the oxidized double Tyr-66 C(alpha)=C(beta) bond and the conjugated system of pi-electrons. Structure-based site-directed mutagenesis has revealed a critical role of the proximal Tyr-220 in the observed effects. In particular, an alternative reaction pathway via Tyr-220 rather than conventional wild type Glu-222 has been proposed for aceGFP maturation.

2. Bogdanov A.M., Bogdanova E.A., Chudakov D.M., Gorodnicheva T.V., Lukyanov S., Lukyanov K.A. (2009). Cell culture medium affects GFP photostability: a solution. Nat. Methods 6 (12), 859–60
3. Pletnev S., Gurskaya N.G., Pletneva N.V., Lukyanov K.A., Chudakov D.M., Martynov V.I., Popov V.O., Kovalchuk M.V., Wlodawer A., Dauter Z., Pletnev V. (2009). Structural basis for phototoxicity of the genetically encoded photosensitizer KillerRed. J. Biol. Chem. 284 (46), 32028–39 [+]

   KillerRed is the only known fluorescent protein that demonstrates notable phototoxicity, exceeding that of the other green and red fluorescent proteins by at least 1,000-fold. KillerRed could serve as an instrument to inactivate target proteins or to kill cell populations in photodynamic therapy. However, the nature of KillerRed phototoxicity has remained unclear, impeding the development of more phototoxic variants. Here we present the results of a high resolution crystallographic study of KillerRed in the active fluorescent and in the photobleached non-fluorescent states. A unique and striking feature of the structure is a water-filled channel reaching the chromophore area from the end cap of the beta-barrel that is probably one of the key structural features responsible for phototoxicity. A study of the structure-function relationship of KillerRed, supported by structure-based, site-directed mutagenesis, has also revealed the key residues most likely responsible for the phototoxic effect. In particular, Glu(68) and Ser(119), located adjacent to the chromophore, have been assigned as the primary trigger of the reaction chain.

4. Serebrovskaya E.O., Edelweiss E.F., Stremovskiy O.A., Lukyanov K.A., Chudakov D.M., Deyev S.M. (2009). Targeting cancer cells by using an antireceptor antibody-photosensitizer fusion protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106 (23), 9221–5 [+]

   Antibody-photosensitizer chemical conjugates are used successfully to kill cancer cells in photodynamic therapy. However, chemical conjugation of photosensitizers presents several limitations, such as poor reproducibility, aggregation, and free photosensitizer impurities. Here, we report a fully genetically encoded immunophotosensitizer, consisting of a specific anti-p185(HER-2-ECD) antibody fragment 4D5scFv fused with the phototoxic fluorescent protein KillerRed. Both parts of the recombinant protein preserved their functional properties: high affinity to antigen and light activation of sensitizer. 4D5scFv-KillerRed showed fine targeting properties and efficiently killed p185(HER-2-ECD)-expressing cancer cells upon light irradiation. It also showed a remarkable additive effect with the commonly used antitumor agent cisplatin, further demonstrating the potential of the approach.

5. Bogdanov A.M., Mishin A.S., Yampolsky I.V., Belousov V.V., Chudakov D.M., Subach F.V., Verkhusha V.V., Lukyanov S., Lukyanov K.A. (2009). Green fluorescent proteins are light-induced electron donors. Nat. Chem. Biol.  (5), 459–461 [+]

   Proteins of the green fluorescent protein (GFP) family are well known owing to their unique biochemistry and extensive use as in vivo markers. We discovered that GFPs of diverse origins can act as light-induced electron donors in photochemical reactions with various electron acceptors, including biologically relevant ones. Moreover, via green-to-red GFP photoconversion, this process can be observed in living cells without additional treatment.

6. Shcherbo D., Merzlyak E.M., Chepurnykh T.V., Fradkov A.F., Ermakova G.V., Solovieva E.A., Lukyanov K.A., Bogdanova E.A., Zaraisky A.G., Lukyanov S., Chudakov D.M. (2007). Bright far-red fluorescent protein for whole-body imaging. Nat. Methods 4 (9), 741–6 [+]

   Разработан новый флуоресцентный белок Katushka, обладающий флуоресценцией в дальне-красной области спектра, которая является предпочтительной для анализа сигнала внутри тканей животных. Katushka в десять раз ярче, чем созданные ранее дальне-красные флуоресцентные белки и характеризуется высокой скоростью созревания, высокой рН-стабильностью и фотостабильностью. Это делает новый белок идеальным инструментом для прижизненного мечения клеток внутри целых организмов. Создан мономерный вариант белка Katushka, названный mKate, для исследования внутриклеточной локализации белков.

7. Merzlyak E.M., Goedhart J., Shcherbo D., Bulina M.E., Shcheglov A.S., Fradkov A.F., Gaintzeva A., Lukyanov K.A., Lukyanov S., Gadella T.W., Chudakov D.M. (2007). Bright monomeric red fluorescent protein with an extended fluorescence lifetime. Nat. Methods 4 (7), 555–7 [+]

   Fluorescent proteins have become extremely popular tools for in vivo imaging and especially for the study of localization, motility and interaction of proteins in living cells. Here we report TagRFP, a monomeric red fluorescent protein, which is characterized by high brightness, complete chromophore maturation, prolonged fluorescence lifetime and high pH-stability. These properties make TagRFP an excellent tag for protein localization studies and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) applications.

8. Chudakov D.M., Lukyanov S., Lukyanov K.A. (2007). Using photoactivatable fluorescent protein Dendra2 to track protein movement. BioTechniques 42 (5), 553, 555, 557 passim [+]

   Photoactivatable fluorescent proteins are capable of dramatic changes in fluorescent properties in response to specific light irradiation. For example, they can be converted from cyan to green, or from green to red, or from nonfluorescent to a brightly fluorescent state. Several types of such proteins were developed recently, and some of them are already becoming popular tools to study protein mobility. Here we provide detailed recommendations on application of the monomeric green-to-red photoconvertible fluorescent protein Dendra2 for protein tracking in living cultured cells.

9. Evdokimov A.G., Pokross M.E., Egorov N.S., Zaraisky A.G., Yampolsky I.V., Merzlyak E.M., Shkoporov A.N., Sander I., Lukyanov K.A., Chudakov D.M. (2006). Structural basis for the fast maturation of Arthropoda green fluorescent protein. EMBO Rep. 7 (10), 1006–12 [+]

   Since the cloning of Aequorea victoria green fluorescent protein (GFP) in 1992, a family of known GFP-like proteins has been growing rapidly. Today, it includes more than a hundred proteins with different spectral characteristics cloned from Cnidaria species. For some of these proteins, crystal structures have been solved, showing diversity in chromophore modifications and conformational states. However, we are still far from a complete understanding of the origin, functions and evolution of the GFP family. Novel proteins of the family were recently cloned from evolutionarily distant marine Copepoda species, phylum Arthropoda, demonstrating an extremely rapid generation of fluorescent signal. Here, we have generated a non-aggregating mutant of Copepoda fluorescent protein and solved its high-resolution crystal structure. It was found that the protein beta-barrel contains a pore, leading to the chromophore. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we showed that this feature is critical for the fast maturation of the chromophore.

10. Chudakov D.M., Chepurnykh T.V., Belousov V.V., Lukyanov S., Lukyanov K.A. (2006). Fast and precise protein tracking using repeated reversible photoactivation. Traffic 7 (10), 1304–10 [+]

    Photoactivatable fluorescent proteins opened principally novel possibilities to study proteins' movement pathways. In particular, reversibly photoactivatable proteins enable multiple tracking experiments in a long-drawn work with a single cell. Here we report 'protein rivers tracking' technique based on repeated identical rounds of photoactivation and subsequent images averaging, which results in dramatic increase of imaging resolution for fast protein movement events.

11. Belousov V.V., Fradkov A.F., Lukyanov K.A., Staroverov D.B., Shakhbazov K.S., Terskikh A.V., Lukyanov S. (2006). Genetically encoded fluorescent indicator for intracellular hydrogen peroxide. Nat. Methods 3 (4), 281–6 [+]

    Разработан уникальный флуоресцентный сенсор HyPer для прижизненного мониторинга колебаний концентрации одного из важнейших регуляторов биологических процессов — перекиси водорода. Имеющий белковую природу, HyPer может быть экспрессирован в клетках или направлен в определенный клеточный компартмент. Благодаря высокой специфичности и чувствительности, HyPer может быть использован для отслеживания колебаний концентрации перекиси водорода на уровне единственной клетки или клеточной органеллы.

12. Gurskaya N.G., Verkhusha V.V., Shcheglov A.S., Staroverov D.B., Chepurnykh T.V., Fradkov A.F., Lukyanov S., Lukyanov K.A. (2006). Engineering of a monomeric green-to-red photoactivatable fluorescent protein induced by blue light. Nat. Biotechnol. 24 (4), 461–5 [+]

    Разработан новый мономерный флуоресцентный белок Dendra, способный к необратимой фотоконверсии из зеленой флуоресцентной формы в красную. Белок Dendra обладает высокой яркостью флуоресценции и может быть активирован как ультрафиолетовым, так и синим светом.

13. Bulina M.E., Lukyanov K.A., Britanova O.V., Onichtchouk D., Lukyanov S., Chudakov D.M. (2006). Chromophore-assisted light inactivation (CALI) using the phototoxic fluorescent protein KillerRed. Nat Protoc 1 (2), 947–53 [+]

    The phototoxic red fluorescent GFP-like protein KillerRed has recently been described. The phototoxicity of KillerRed exceeds that of EGFP by at least 1,000-fold, making it the first fully genetically encoded photosensitizer. KillerRed opens up new possibilities for precise light-induced cell killing and target protein inactivation. Because KillerRed is encoded by a gene, it can be expressed in a spatially and temporally regulated manner, under a chosen promoter, and fused with the desired protein of interest or localization signal. Here we provide a protocol for target protein inactivation in cell culture using KillerRed. As KillerRed is a new tool, the protocol focuses on aspects that will allow users to maximize the potential of this protein, guiding the design of chimeric constructs, recommended control experiments and preferred illumination parameters. The protocol, which describes target protein visualization and subsequent inactivation, is a 2- or 3-d procedure.

14. Bulina M.E., Chudakov D.M., Britanova O.V., Yanushevich Y.G., Staroverov D.B., Chepurnykh T.V., Merzlyak E.M., Shkrob M.A., Lukyanov S., Lukyanov K.A. (2006). A genetically encoded photosensitizer. Nat. Biotechnol. 24 (1), 95–9 [+]

    Photosensitizers are chromophores that generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) upon light irradiation. They are used for inactivation of specific proteins by chromophore-assisted light inactivation (CALI) and for light-induced cell killing in photodynamic therapy. Here we report a genetically encoded photosensitizer, which we call KillerRed, developed from the hydrozoan chromoprotein anm2CP, a homolog of green fluorescent protein (GFP). KillerRed generates ROS upon irradiation with green light. Whereas known photosensitizers must be added to living systems exogenously, KillerRed is fully genetically encoded. We demonstrate the utility of KillerRed for light-induced killing of Escherichia coli and eukaryotic cells and for inactivating fusions to beta-galactosidase and phospholipase Cdelta1 pleckstrin homology domain.

15. Lukyanov K.A., Chudakov D.M., Fradkov A.F., Labas Y.A., Matz M.V., Lukyanov S. (2006). Discovery and properties of GFP-like proteins from nonbioluminescent anthozoa. Methods Biochem Anal 47, 121–38
16. Shkrob M.A., Yanushevich Y.G., Chudakov D.M., Gurskaya N.G., Labas Y.A., Poponov S.Y., Mudrik N.N., Lukyanov S., Lukyanov K.A. (2005). Far-red fluorescent proteins evolved from a blue chromoprotein from Actinia equina. Biochem. J. 392 (Pt 3), 649–54 [+]

    Proteins of the GFP (green fluorescent protein) family demonstrate a great spectral and phylogenetic diversity. However, there is still an intense demand for red-shifted GFP-like proteins in both basic and applied science. To obtain GFP-like chromoproteins with red-shifted absorption, we performed a broad search in blue-coloured Anthozoa species. We revealed specimens of Actinia equina (beadlet anemone) exhibiting a bright blue circle band at the edge of the basal disc. A novel blue chromoprotein, aeCP597, with an absorption maximum at 597 nm determining the coloration of the anemone basal disk was cloned. AeCP597 carries a chromophore chemically identical with that of the well-studied DsRed (red fluorescent protein from Discosoma sp.). Thus a strong 42-nm bathochromic shift of aeCP597 absorption compared with DsRed is determined by peculiarities of chromophore environment. Site-directed and random mutagenesis of aeCP597 resulted in far-red fluorescent mutants with emission maxima at up to 663 nm. The most bright and stable mutant AQ143 possessed excitation and emission maxima at 595 and 655 nm respectively. Thus aeCP597 and its fluorescent mutants set a new record of red-shifted absorption and emission maxima among GFP-like proteins.

17. Chudakov D.M., Lukyanov S., Lukyanov K.A. (2005). Fluorescent proteins as a toolkit for in vivo imaging. Trends Biotechnol. 23 (12), 605–13 [+]

    Green fluorescent protein (GFP) from the jellyfish Aequorea victoria, and its mutant variants, are the only fully genetically encoded fluorescent probes available and they have proved to be excellent tools for labeling living specimens. Since 1999, numerous GFP homologues have been discovered in Anthozoa, Hydrozoa and Copepoda species, demonstrating the broad evolutionary and spectral diversity of this protein family. Mutagenic studies gave rise to diversified and optimized variants of fluorescent proteins, which have never been encountered in nature. This article gives an overview of the GFP-like proteins developed to date and their most common applications to study living specimens using fluorescence microscopy.

18. Lukyanov K.A., Chudakov D.M., Lukyanov S., Verkhusha V.V. (2005). Innovation: Photoactivatable fluorescent proteins. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 6 (11), 885–91 [+]

    The fluorescence characteristics of photoactivatable proteins can be controlled by irradiating them with light of a specific wavelength, intensity and duration. This provides unique possibilities for the optical labelling and tracking of living cells, organelles and intracellular molecules in a spatio-temporal manner. Here, we discuss the properties of the available photoactivatable fluorescent proteins and their potential applications.

19. Chudakov D.M., Verkhusha V.V., Staroverov D.B., Souslova E.A., Lukyanov S., Lukyanov K.A. (2004). Photoswitchable cyan fluorescent protein for protein tracking. Nat. Biotechnol. 22 (11), 1435–9 [+]

    In recent years diverse photolabeling techniques using green fluorescent protein (GFP)-like proteins have been reported, including photoactivatable PA-GFP, photoactivatable protein Kaede, the DsRed 'greening' technique and kindling fluorescent proteins. So far, only PA-GFP, which is monomeric and gives 100-fold fluorescence contrast, could be applied for protein tracking. Here we describe a dual-color monomeric protein, photoswitchable cyan fluorescent protein (PS-CFP). PS-CFP is capable of efficient photoconversion from cyan to green, changing both its excitation and emission spectra in response to 405-nm light irradiation. Complete photoactivation of PS-CFP results in a 1,500-fold increase in the green-to-cyan fluorescence ratio, making it the highest-contrast monomeric photoactivatable fluorescent protein described to date. We used PS-CFP as a photoswitchable tag to study trafficking of human dopamine transporter in living cells. At moderate excitation intensities, PS-CFP can be used as a pH-stable cyan label for protein tagging and fluorescence resonance energy transfer applications.

20. Bulina M.E., Lukyanov K.A., Yampolsky I.V., Chudakov D.M., Staroverov D.B., Shcheglov A.S., Gurskaya N.G., Lukyanov S. (2004). New class of blue animal pigments based on Frizzled and Kringle protein domains. J. Biol. Chem. 279 (42), 43367–70 [+]

    The nature of coloration in many marine animals remains poorly investigated. Here we studied the blue pigment of a scyfoid jellyfish Rhizostoma pulmo and determined it to be a soluble extracellular 30-kDa chromoprotein with a complex absorption spectrum peaking at 420, 588, and 624 nm. Furthermore, we cloned the corresponding cDNA and confirmed its identity by immunoblotting and mass spectrometry experiments. The chromoprotein, named rpulFKz1, consists of two domains, a Frizzled cysteine-rich domain and a Kringle domain, inserted into one another. Generally, Frizzleds are members of a basic Wnt signal transduction pathway investigated intensely with regard to development and cancerogenesis. Kringles are autonomous structural domains found throughout the blood clotting and fibrinolytic proteins. Neither Frizzled and Kringle domains association with any type of coloration nor Kringle intrusion into Frizzled sequence was ever observed. Thus, rpulFKz1 represents a new class of animal pigments, whose chromogenic group remains undetermined. The striking homology between a chromoprotein and members of the signal transduction pathway provides a novel node in the evolution track of growth factor-mediated morphogenesis compounds.

21. Verkhusha V.V., Chudakov D.M., Gurskaya N.G., Lukyanov S., Lukyanov K.A. (2004). Common pathway for the red chromophore formation in fluorescent proteins and chromoproteins. Chem. Biol. 11 (6), 845–54 [+]

    The mechanism of the chromophore maturation in members of the green fluorescent protein (GFP) family such as DsRed and other red fluorescent and chromoproteins was analyzed. The analysis indicates that the red chromophore results from a chemical transformation of the protonated form of the GFP-like chromophore, not from the anionic form, which appears to be a dead-end product. The data suggest a rational strategy to achieve the complete red chromophore maturation utilizing substitutions to favor the formation of the neutral phenol in GFP-like chromophore. Our approach to detect the neutral chromophore form expands the application of fluorescent timer proteins to faster promoter activities and more spectrally distinguishable fluorescent colors. Light sensitivity found in the DsRed neutral form, resulting in its instant transformation to the mature red chromophore, could be exploited to accelerate the fluorescence acquisition.

22. Chudakov D.M., Lukyanov K.A. (2003). Use of green fluorescent protein (GFP) and its homologs for in vivo protein motility studies. Biochemistry Mosc. 68 (9), 952–7 [+]

    Green fluorescent protein (GFP) and its homologs are widely used as fluorescent markers of gene expression and for determination of protein localization and motility in living cells. In particular, based on GFP and GFP-like proteins a number of techniques have been developed that can be used either to estimate protein mobility in living cells, or to introduce a distinctive fluorescent signal in order to track the movement of labeled molecules directly. Considerable progress in the development of such technologies in the last two or three years motivates us to reevaluate the present scope of biotechnological instruments in studies of protein movement in cells.

23. Bulina M.E., Verkhusha V.V., Staroverov D.B., Chudakov D.M., Lukyanov K.A. (2003). Hetero-oligomeric tagging diminishes non-specific aggregation of target proteins fused with Anthozoa fluorescent proteins. Biochem. J. 371 (Pt 1), 109–14 [+]

    The tendency for tetramerization is the main disadvantage in the green fluorescent protein homologues from Anthozoa species. We report a universal method called hetero-oligomeric tagging, which diminishes troublesome consequences of tetramerization of Anthozoa-derived fluorescent proteins (FP) in intracellular protein labelling. This approach is based on the co-expression of the FP-tagged protein of interest together with an excess of free non-fluorescent FP mutant. The resulting FP heterotetramers contain only a single target polypeptide and, therefore, can be considered pseudo-monomeric. Feasibility of the method has been demonstrated with a red FP fused with cytoplasmic beta-actin or tubulin-binding protein Tau34. In addition, heterotetramers appeared to be a unique model for biophysical characterization of Anthozoa FPs in pseudo-monomeric state.

24. Chudakov D.M., Feofanov A.V., Mudrik N.N., Lukyanov S., Lukyanov K.A. (2003). Chromophore environment provides clue to "kindling fluorescent protein" riddle. J. Biol. Chem. 278 (9), 7215–9 [+]

    asCP, the unique green fluorescent protein-like nonfluorescent chromoprotein from the sea anemone Anemonia sulcata, becomes fluorescent ("kindles") upon green light irradiation, with maximum emission at 595 nm. The kindled protein then relaxes to a nonfluorescent state or can be "quenched" instantly by blue light irradiation. In this work, we used asCP mutants to investigate the mechanism underlying kindling. Using site-directed mutagenesis we showed that amino acids spatially surrounding Tyr(66) in the chromophore are crucial for kindling. We propose a model of the kindling mechanism, in which the key event is chromophore turning or cis-trans isomerization. Using site-directed mutagenesis we also managed to transfer the kindling property to the two other coral chromoproteins. Remarkably, most kindling mutants were capable of both reversible and irreversible kindling. Also, we obtained novel variants that kindled upon blue light irradiation. The diversity of photoactivated fluorescent proteins that can be developed by site-directed mutagenesis is promising for biotechnological needs.

25. Chudakov D.M., Belousov V.V., Zaraisky A.G., Novoselov V.V., Staroverov D.B., Zorov D.B., Lukyanov S., Lukyanov K.A. (2003). Kindling fluorescent proteins for precise in vivo photolabeling. Nat. Biotechnol. 21 (2), 191–4 [+]

    Photobleaching of green fluorescent protein (GFP) is a widely used approach for tracking the movement of subcellular structures and intracellular proteins. Although photobleaching is a powerful technique, it does not allow direct tracking of an object's movement and velocity within a living cell. Direct tracking becomes possible only with the introduction of a photoactivated fluorescent marker. A number of previous studies have reported optically induced changes in the emission spectra of fluorescent proteins. However, the ideal photoactivated fluorescent marker should be a nonfluorescent tag capable of "switching on" (i.e., becoming fluorescent) in response to irradiation by light of a particular wavelength, intensity, and duration. In this report, we generated a mutant of Anemonia sulcata chromoprotein asCP. The mutant protein is capable of unique irreversible photoconversion from the nonfluorescent to a stable bright-red fluorescent form ("kindling"). This "kindling fluorescent protein" (KFP1) can be used for precise in vivo photolabeling to track the movements of cells, organelles, and proteins. We used KFP1 for in vivo cell labeling in mRNA microinjection assays to monitor Xenopus laevis embryo development and to track mitochondrial movement in mammalian cells.

26. Bulina M.E., Chudakov D.M., Mudrik N.N., Lukyanov K.A. (2002). Interconversion of Anthozoa GFP-like fluorescent and non-fluorescent proteins by mutagenesis. BMC Biochem. 3, 7 [+]

    BACKGROUND: Within the family of green fluorescent protein (GFP) homologs, one can mark two main groups, specifically, fluorescent proteins (FPs) and non-fluorescent or chromoproteins (CPs). Structural background of differences between FPs and CPs are poorly understood to date. RESULTS: Here, we applied site-directed and random mutagenesis in order to to transform CP into FP and vice versa. A purple chromoprotein asCP (asFP595) from Anemonia sulcata and a red fluorescent protein DsRed from Discosoma sp. were selected as representatives of CPs and FPs, respectively. For asCP, some substitutions at positions 148 and 165 (numbering in accordance to GFP) were found to dramatically increase quantum yield of red fluorescence. For DsRed, substitutions at positions 148, 165, 167, and 203 significantly decreased fluorescence intensity, so that the spectral characteristics of these mutants became more close to those of CPs. Finally, a practically non-fluorescent mutant DsRed-NF was generated. This mutant carried four amino acid substitutions, specifically, S148C, I165N, K167M, and S203A. DsRed-NF possessed a high extinction coefficient and an extremely low quantum yield (< 0.001). These spectral characteristics allow one to regard DsRed-NF as a true chromoprotein. CONCLUSIONS: We located a novel point in asCP sequence (position 165) mutations at which can result in red fluorescence appearance. Probably, this finding could be applied onto other CPs to generate red and far-red fluorescent mutants. A possibility to transform an FP into CP was demonstrated. Key role of residues adjacent to chromophore's phenolic ring in fluorescent/non-fluorescent states determination was revealed.